Final+Wiki

The topic of gender, specifically female identity and how women are viewed in society, is frequently discussed. Women have been subject to unfair treatment in the past. One might ask, though, if this is true throughout history or were women, at some point in time, held in higher regard? It does not hurt to look back on ancient cultures and investigate their opinion of women. Egypt, it can be argued, is home to one of the most, if not the most, influential ancient civilizations. Many modern ideas are a result of ancient Egyptian influence. According to the famous Egyptologist Zahi Hawass, women were not as active in society as men; however, they were the legal equals of men (2000). This concept was also true for the majority of women in royalty. While they were held to a higher esteem than common women, they lived their lives in the shadows of their husbands. There are instances, however, in which queens either ruled beside their husbands, or on their own. This is the case with Hatsehpsut and Nefertiti, two of the most well known Egyptian female rulers. Both of these women had a large impact during their reign, which may have influenced modern ideals.

=__ Position of Women in Ancient Egypt __= Of the ancient civilizations, it can be said that Egypt was one of the most equal, socially speaking. As previously stated, women were allowed the same legal rights as men. In comparison to other ancient civilizations, this idea is revolutionary. According to Susan Towers-Hollis three classes of women existed in ancient Egypt: royal, noble, and common (ordinary) women (1987). In most cases, royal women were respected as equals of their husbands; however, they were never held in as high a religious status as was the case for the king. Examples of this can be seen in depictions of many queens, such as Nefertiti. Literacy, although not widespread, was common among the royal and noble classes. Portrayals exist of women with tools used by scribes, thus providing evidence that there were some literate women among the noble class (Towers-Hollis 1987). Common women were not as fortunate enough to receive a formal education; however, they did enjoy the same legal rights as men. The husband was in charge of the “joint property” owned (Tyldesley 1994); however, women were allowed to keep and manage their portion of property were their marriage to end in divorce (Towers-Hollis 1987). They were also given the same right to an inheritance should their husband die (Towers-Hollis 1987). The rold of Common women was to give birth and raising a family (Tyldesley 1994). The more fertile the woman was the more she was respected throughout society (Tyldesley 1994). This fact is depicted through images of “a woman squatting to suckle a child at her left breast” (Tyldesley 1994). Fertility and child-care were so important that the role of royal wet nurse was one of the highest positions that a non-royal woman could obtain (Tyldesley 1994). Despite these factors, women were rarely represented independently. They were most often depicted and understood in conjunction with the prominent male figure in their lives. According to Towers-Hollis, there is “a connection…between the relatively respected position of women and the cosmogonic sky goddess and other dominant Egyptian goddesses.” (1994). In her article, she supports this point by discussing the important of the Egyptian goddess, Nut. She claims that the position of women resulted from, quoting Diodorus Siculus, “the success attained by (the goddess) Isis…(who) avenged the murder of her husband and reigned all her days over the land with complete respect for the laws, and…became the cause of more and greater blessings to all men than any other” (1987). Nut is the sky goddess of Egypt, a position normally depicted by a male figure (Towers-Hollis 1987). She is also the mother of the sun God, Re. There are multiple depictions of Nut swallowing the sun, Re, “traversing through her body at night, to be born again at dawn” (Towers-Hollis 1987). These depictions prove the importance of Nut, making it seem that she is essential to life. Without her giving birth to Re, the sun, every morning, life would come to a halt. “She is //de facto// the regulator of the passage of days and nights,…therefore of time, a function normally established by male deities…” (Towers-Hollis 1987). This is just one example of many goddesses in the ancient Egyptian culture. These goddesses often times serve crucial roles, and represent a much greater role in the civilization.

**__ Hatshepsut __** While the majority of women never had the opportunity to hold positions of power, there were a select few who did. In all of ancient Egyptian history, only four women rose to the position of king, ruling the Egyptian kingdom on their own (Hawass 2000). One of the most understood of the four is Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut was the principal wife of King Thutmose II. After his death power was passed on to his son, Thutmose III, who was, in fact, the son of a minor wife of Thutmose II, Isis. Upon assuming power, Thutmose III appointed his mother principal wife, demoting Hatshepsut to the position of regent (Graves-Brown 2010). Not until later in Thutmose III’s rule did Hatshepsut promote herself as co-regent. Carolyn Graves-Brown sites the death of Isis or the death of Hatshepsut’s mother as the motive for her self-promotion (2010). She was also the only biological link to the divine royalty, which, in Egyptian belief, is required to rule (Brown 2009). It is difficult to determine exactly how Hattshepsut fell out of power. After her death, Thutmose III went through the kingdom defacing monuments and structures depicting Hatshepsut as a divine ruler. While the purpose of this is unclear, it is assumed that Thutmose III did this to either prevent other females from rising to power or to punish Hatshepsut for overstepping her position in society (Graves-Brown 2010). Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thothmes and Amose (Wells 1969). She was one of many children; however, her father held her in very high regard (Wells 1969). As royalty, she was fortunate enough to receive an education. Hatshepsut was frequently reminded that she must live up to the successful standards set by her ancestors (Wells 1969). She took note and did not let them down. She publicized the importance of her position through building monuments across the landscape: temples, shrines, statues, and obelisks (Brown 2009). Her finest architectural achievement is the temple Deir el Bahri. The ancient translation, “holiest of the holy” (Graves-Brown 2010), exemplifies the influential power Hatshepsut had in ancient Egypt. Early in her career, Hatshepsut tried to combine the ideas of masculinity and femininity by fusing traditional symbols of a king with the body of a woman (Brown 2009).

=__ Nefertiti __= About one thousand years after Hathspesut’s rule, Egypt was introduced to another powerful woman. In the tomb of Panehesy, there is a reference to Queen Nefertiti: “it is inscribed that ‘when she says anything it is done.’” The same description was used to describe Queen Hatshepsut (Samson 1985). According to Joyce Tyldesley, there is substantial evidence supporting idea that Nefertiti was “born a member of Egypt’s wealthy elite.” (1999). Not until the birth of her first daughter was Nefertiti shown as her husbands equal. After this event, Nefertiti is portrayed with masculine traits, such as wearing clothes similar to her husband, in numerous depictions. Julia Samson speculates that Nefertiti was not born into a royal bloodline (1985). Despite this fact, the use of her name in offerings signifies her “divine regality” (Samson 1985). In almost all depictions of offerings, the king’s offering faces the God Aten; however, in Nefertiti’s case, the names of the offerings always face her. This is not seen anywhere else in Egyptian history (Samson 1985). Because Nefertiti failed to produce a male heir, she became successor after the death of Akhenaten. Evidence of this newly gained status exists in the form of an unfinished tomb built in a similar fashion that mirrors Akhenaten’s tomb (Samson 1985.) While the idea of a co-ruling queen was not widely accepted at first, Akhenaten made it a point to ensure Nefertiti was represented as his equal (Samson 1985). Julia Samson describes a religious festival in which Nefertiti and Akhenaten are represented equally. The purpose of //Heb Sed//, also known as the Jubilee Festival, was to reinforce “the pharaoh’s powers by the gods…” (Samson 1985). The most striking detail in the scene is Nefertiti’s carrying chair. Her chair is carved with the same kingly symbols (lionesses and sphinxes) used on Akhenaten’s chair (Samson 1985). Her prominent role in this festival would have been shocking to ancient Egyptians, but it reaffirmed her royal position. As if her participation in various religious ceremonies was not enough, there are depictions of Nefertiti as a warrior. Only kings have ever been depicted as warrior figures; however, Nefertiti is shown holding captives by the hair with her other arm raised to commit the final blow. Nefertiti is most often represented as co-regent and equal of her husband, King Akhenaten. However, depictions also exist of her performing kingly duties on her own. The combination of these two solidifies the importance and impact of her reign.

=__References__= Brown, Chip 2009 National Geographic. Electronic document, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/04/hatshepsut/brown-text/1, accessed November 14, 2010. Graves-Brown, Carolyn 2010 //Dancing for Hathor: Women in Ancient Egypt//. MPG Books Group Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand. Hawass, Zahi 2000 //Silent Images//. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York. Samson, Julia 1985 //Nefertiti and Cleopatra: Queen-Monarchs of Ancient Egypt//. The Rubicon Press, London. Tower-Hollis, Susan 1987 Women of Ancient Egypt and the Sky Goddess Nut. //Journal of American Folklore// 100 (398) : 496-503. Tyldesley, Joyce A. 1994 Marriage and Motherhood in Ancient Egypt. //History Today// 44 (4) : 20-26. Tyldesley, Joyce A. 1999 //Nefertiti: Egypt’s Sun Queen//. Penguin Group, New York. Walker, Cameron 2006 National Geographic. Electronic document, [], accessed November 14, 2010. Wells, Evelyn 1969 //Hatshepsut//. Doubleday & Company, Inc., New York. [] []